Science Based
Cosmology Glossary"With miracles, any sort of evidence will do,
but facts require proof."
- Mark Twain| Home | Overview | References | News |
Science Based Cosmology is limited to ideas meeting the minimum criteria for a scientific claim.
(c) Copyright David Dilworth, 1999-2010 All rights reserved worldwide.
Age, Universe
Older than Cher, younger than Mick Jagger. ( ;-) (1)
About 14 billion to a trillion years old, to infinite in age. Big Bang supporters claim the universe age is 13.7 billion years (plus or minus 10 percent). Other astrophysicists support cosmological models asserting the universe is at least trillions of years old to infinite in age.
Big Bang is an assortment of controversial cosmology models or conjectures, often collectively called the "Standard Model" or "Standard Cosmology." These generally propose that all the matter, energy, forces and space we now experience as our universe originated from a dot smaller than an electron some 14 billion years ago and expanded (not exploded) to what we now experience.
The various Big Bang models have several amendments including inflation and acceleration.
Model - Not a Theory: Big Bang is unfortunately not yet a Theory or a hypothesis because it is incomplete. There is no single agreed upon version of Big Bang (e.g. Lambda-Cold Dark Matter, LeMaitre, Einstein-deSitter, Friedman-LeMaitre open and closed versions, etc.), all the versions provided are ambiguous, vary dramatically, lack fully defined fundamental terms, and are often "dynamic" (have moving goal posts).
The most cited author of Big Bang concepts, Princeton's P.J. Peebles, does not refer to the "Big Bang" as a "theory," he correctly calls it a "model."(2) So there is no "Big Bang Theory" - but there are several "Big Bang Models." However, many popular authors, and even a few scientists who should know better, overlook this important distinction.
Evidence: Even though Big Bang is not yet a scientific claim where evidence is relevant, the main data its supporters point to are spectral line redshift increasing with distance (interpreted as meaning universe expansion), that we are bathed in microwave radiation from our universe's "background" that originated soon after Big Bang, that the amounts and ratios of light elements can only mean they were all created at one moment (nucleosynthesis), supernova decay taking longer at large distances means our universe is stretching, and Olber's paradox.
The various Big Bang Models are based upon and require some seven interdependent ideas, including at least three conjectures -
- that there is a Spectral line Redshift-to-Distance correlation - which is observed and undisputed (though it does have a large margin of error),
- the hypothesis that the Redshift-to-Distance correlation also means that most galaxies are rushing away from us at Recession Velocity
- the conjecture that Recession Velocity means our Universe (other than galaxies) is stretching called "Universe Expansion,"
- Universe Expansion is explained by, not the well known and studied Doppler Effect, but a conjectured Relativistic Doppler Effect,
- the conjecture that we can extrapolate the purported Universe Expansion backward in time 14 billion years to a moment when all the matter and energy in our Universe were packed together in a volume smaller than an electron.
- the conjectured Cosmological Constant-Vacuum Fluctuations which are constantly creating matter from nothing, and which are only explained by and need --
- The hypothetical Higgs Boson (the never seen particle).
Big Bang models also require --
These Big Bang models are so controversial they have spawned abundant highly informed dispute in science-based astrophysics papers, books, Conferences, and the famous Open letter of concern signed by hundreds of astronomers and scientists and published in NewScientist.
(The Big Bang set of conjectures are accurately described as a moving target. These amendments are intended to solve a few of Big Bang's problems.)
The Accelerating Universe conjecture amends Big Bang models by claiming the universe is not merely expanding or stretching, but that the purported expansion is accelerating. This concept is an interpretation of 1998 observations that distant supernova appear dimmer than expected.
Accelerating Universe is a three part conjecture:
- Because the distant supernova are apparently dimmer than expected some interpret this as meaning that the supernova are farther away.
- They then interpret unexpected farther - ness as meaning that "something" extra pushed them.
- Their first choice for that "something" extra is a conjectured new force that is repulsive to gravity.
Adding to this - they claim that the conjectured universe expansion is accelerating - yet at the same time our universe is "closed."
Critics point out that when Malmquist bias is removed - there is no dimming; and measurements of the brightest galaxies in distant clusters show no similar dimming (Tom Andrews, CCC1).
Inflation conjectures amend Big Bang, by claiming that the conjectured Universe Expansion underwent an astounding acceleration (magnitudes greater than light speed) at a very early stage. They are intended to solve some of Big Bang's generally accepted problems including - Horizon, Smoothness, Flatness, Magnetic monopoles and arbitrary initial conditions.
There are now at least half a dozen very different Inflation conjectures, none of which are widely supported. The original (1980) concept claims the universe doubled in size every 1030 of a second for some 100 doublings; growing from smaller than atomic size to a ball that would encompass our nearest 20 galaxies in less than a second.
An idealized or reference perfect absorber of radiation useful for understanding the physics of thermal equilibrium. Such a theoretical object emits a predictable temperature dependent radiation spectrum. The textbook example is a box with a tiny hole in the side.
There is no strictly exact black body in nature, but good approximations are provided by individual stars and a closed graphite box at a steady temperature.
The microwave "background" radiation hypothesis claims to provide a "perfect" thermal emission spectrum to a blackbody.
A hypothetical "object" or region of physical space where gravity is so strong it prevents any matter from escaping and even light cannot escape.
While the hypothesis itself means a black hole is inherently invisible or unobservable directly, there is powerful new evidence of several stars orbiting an invisible region at the center of our galaxy that is hard to explain as something other than phenomena visibly acting as a black hole would.
To see stars orbiting a powerful invisible force at the center of our galaxy and make abrupt turns, click on the image below.
Graphic courtesy W. M. Keck Observatory / UCLA Galactic Center Group
Compact energy star/source at galaxy centers, with high amounts of X-ray radiation, and jets of matter ejected at near, and sometimes seemingly many times faster than, the speed of light (superluminal).
Huge volumes of gas as large as 400,000 light years across (4 times the diameter of our Milky Way galaxy).
Luminosity
Flux
Fluence
Light Frequency / Wavelength
Velocity
Standard Candle
Magnitude
Magnitude, Absolute
Magnitude, Apparent
Distance Modulus
The various terms used to communicate the energy radiated by astrophysical objects. (Attempted analogies with water in a hose are in parenthesis.) It is important to note that some terms are limited to visible light, while others include energy from the entire electromagnetic spectrum (e.g. x-rays and radio waves).
Luminosity (in watts): Brightness of an astronomical object totaling all energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, independent of distance. It is measured as absolute magnitude, or by using our Sun's brightness as 1.0 on the Solar scale.
- Brightness decreases as distance increases.
- Luminosity remains steady as distance increases.
Confusingly "Apparent luminosity" only means visible light - not other radiation wavelengths.
Flux: Power per unit area (rate of water flowing through a hose). Sun's Flux ~ 1367 watts / square meter at Earth's surface (on a sunny day near the Equator).
Fluence = Flux x Time: Energy / unit area over a specific amount of time (e.g. kilowatt hours. Or the amount of water needed to fill a glass or a swimming pool.)
EM Radiation Frequency / Wavelength: (very roughly - "temperature" of water in a hose - it makes little difference.)
Velocity: Always the same - light speed.
Standard Candle: An astronomical object or phenomena with a brightness that is reliable distance indicator. Cepheid Variable stars and Supernova Type 1 are typically used as Standard Candles.
Magnitude: Relative brightness of an astronomical object measured in a specific wavelength or passband, usually in visible light range, using a logarithmic scale. Used to measure Flux. Five (5) units = 100x decrease in Flux.
Magnitude, Absolute: The apparent brightness of an object if it was at ~33 light years distance (10 parsecs) from Earth.
Magnitude, Apparent: The brightness of an object in visible light only. For example: even if a dimmer star is closer - it may appear brighter.
Distance Modulus: Difference between Magnitude & Absolute Magnitude
Bremsstrahlung or Gas Reradiation
When electrons slow down in the electric fields of other electrons or protons they emit gamma-rays called Bremsstrahlung, braking radiation, or "free-free" radiation.
Who bears responsibility for a scientific claim? In science the proponent of an idea, not a skeptic, is responsible for providing clear, unambiguous claims for the idea, all necessary definitions, the evidence and rationale. This is not always done.
The tendency to only recognize evidence or reasoning that confirms an already held conclusion - even when that judgment is overwhelmingly refuted, groundless or ambiguous.
Confirmation Bias was cited by the Columbia Space Shuttle Accident Investigation Board as a leading reason why strong evidence of danger was ignored by program managers.
Many times in the history of science, leading scientists have profoundly disregarded adequate and sometimes overwhelming, evidence contradicting and refuting the dominant paradigm of the time; and perfectly valid science supporting new hypotheses.
- False Negatives
Examples of valid science that were cast aside include -- the Plate Tectonic hypothesis which was soundly rejected for 50 years before it began to gather acceptance. Helicobacter pylori causing stomach ulcers was first observed in the 1800s. Its 1982 evidence was solidly rejected by the mainstream medical community for years, but the researchers were finally awarded a 2005 Nobel prize. There are many other Nobel Prize winners whose papers were originally rejected.
- False Positives
Some recent "main stream" hypotheses that were presumably solid at the time, but which were subsequently refuted include N-Rays ("confirmed" by some 120 scientists in 300 published articles), and Polywater (also "confirmed" by other researchers). And less recently the complex Ptolemaic motion concepts, based on the notion that our earth was the center of our Solar system and Universe. It held up for more than 1,000 years even though it was disputed by reasonable astronomers since its origin.
An inability to understand, entertain, accept or even acknowledge alternatives after your own idea is proven wrong.
This phenomena may have prompted the observation "Doing the same thing over and over and expecting a different result is [irrational]."
Cosmic Microwave / Millimeter "Background" Radiation (also CMBR, CMB, MBR, CBR and "relic radiation.")
The acronym "CMR" is used to describe the undisputed microwave radiation independent of any contested "background" or Big Bang claims. "Millimeter" may have more meaning than "microwave" by clearly identifying the peak of the radiation energy - which is near one millimeter wavelength.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is a set of claims that the universe expanded from a tiny hot volume (Big Bang conjecture) leaving traces of that radiation, barely above absolute zero, now permeating our universe.
Cosmic Microwave "Background" Radiation is composed of three claims:
- The testable hypothesis that the diffuse glow of icy cold radiation in the microwave frequency is "background" - not from foreground sources. This claim proposes the millimeter wavelength radiation is neither local (not from stars or our galaxy, or any other galaxies, nor from interstellar or intergalactic plasma, dust, gas or any other point sources) or recent (not emitted in the past 14 billion years).
- The conjecture or interpretation or opinion that Big Bang is the "background" source of this radiation, and
- The unstated assumption that this "background" microwave radiation has not significantly interacted with intergalactic plasma, gas or dust in 14 billion years.
The CMBR conjecture is absolutely unclear on how many, if any, interactions the proposed "background" radiation photons have had with intergalactic dust, plasma, or gas in the past 14 billion years. One leading CMBR advocate claims intergalactic space is ambiguously "transparent" (zero interactions? with gas, plasma or dust?) at least as far away as Andromeda galaxy (2.5 million light years distant).
Contrast that with the possibility of a single intergalactic photon experiencing only one interaction per year. That photon would have 2.5 million interactions coming here from Andromeda - a neighboring galaxy.
While several Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work on CMR (its discovery, blackbody evidence, and anisotropy), the limitations of the evidence for "background" CMR are rarely clear or understood beyond those advocating for it. The CMR "background" conjecture has at least 10 severe problems with rationale and evidence.
Some astrophysicts argue that CMR is nothing more than radio wave fog produced by plasma filaments.
The discovery of this radiation is primarily credited with the decline of Steady State Models (not Static Models) and fortified Big Bang. Notably, the discovery of CMR does not conflict with Steady State, Plasma or Static models. Oddly, failure of the CM(Background)R concept does not appear to cause Big Bang's failure.
Concepts, Scientific Values of
Laws of Physics
Theory
Hypothesis
__________
Model
Conjecture
Laws of Physics: A scientific generalization of a physics hypothesis or theory to explain natural phenomena that has been exhaustively tested, is supported with an overwhelming set of direct evidence and has never had repeatable contradicting observations or a reasonable rational dispute.
Gravity, electromagnetism and the Conservation of Energy and Mass are laws of physics. Laws of physics have more scientific value than theories and hypotheses.
Theory, scientific: A scientific hypothesis, which has been tested in many facets and has returned replicable results. A scientific theory has more credibility than a hypothesis.
Hypothesis, scientific: A testable idea, an un-ambiguous testable idea.
While ordinary conversations can use the words "hypothesis" and "theory" nonchalantly, science has strict limits on the use of those terms.
No one can claim to have a scientific theory or scientific hypothesis until it is fully and un-ambiguously described; no word, term, phrase, sentence or concept may have more than one possible interpretation or understanding.
A hypothesis or theory must also be testable to qualify as a scientific claim.
---- This line separates ideas composed with scientific rigor
from other ideas. ----Model: An idea or concept that may combine many ideas to help understand phenomena. Models are useful for thinking through problems with many, sometimes dozens of, variables and how they affect each other.
However, a model is not a scientific hypothesis or scientific theory because a model is not required to be 1) unambiguous, or to have 2) clear definitions. Models typically include intentionally variable definitions, missing parameters and hidden assumptions. This dramatic distinction is forgotten by far too many "Theoretical" scientists working with models. Models are sometimes misleadingly called "working hypotheses" which falsely boosts their scientific value.
Beware of models -- "There have been many cases in which computer models have been used to justify decisions already made and actions already taken, to provide a scapegoat when a forecast turned out wrong, or to lend specious authority to an argument." - Dr. John Sterman, A Skeptics Guide to Computer Models, 1988
Conjecture: An idea not yet complete enough to be a testable scientific hypothesis. It may need less ambiguous definitions, or phenomena which can be measured. A conjecture is not a scientific hypothesis or scientific theory
Two fundamental laws of physics stating that while mass can be converted into energy (e.g. an atomic explosion) and energy can be converted into mass, no energy-mass is created, lost or destroyed (all energy-mass is conserved) in any phenomena.
Some leading Big Bang advocates have claimed Conservation of Energy and Mass does not hold up at intergalactic distances - in spite of a complete lack of direct evidence. (2)
Cosmologists
In general there are two kinds of cosmologists: Observational and Theoretical. Observational Cosmologists use telescopes, data and physics and need money to collect data. Cosmology Theorists primarily employ mathematics and pencils - much less expensive.
Cosmologists are human beings who study and debate cosmology, frequently with great passion with one remarkable distinction. Cosmologists, unlike everyone else, are incapable of bias, myopia, error or misconstructed viewpoints. (I'm just kidding).
However, there is a phenomenon which inspired the amusing bumper sticker "Cosmologists are often wrong, but never in doubt."
This may be described by Dilworth's Hyper-Certainty Principle -- "Data quality and quantity is inversely related to advocacy certainty and ferocity." Thus the less and worse data available - the more certain the advocacy. This is apparent where zero data inspires huge certainty and advocacy.
The study of the largest scale structures and dynamics of our universe.
Cosmology includes the study of scientific hypotheses and scientific theories (as well as incomplete and ambiguous conjectures and models) which do not claim to have a beginning as well as those that do.
Our universe's largest known structures are Bubbles, Supercluster complexes, Filaments and Walls of galaxies; Lyman Alpha Blobs of gas, and Voids with no galaxies. Some of these appear as large as 3.5 billion light years across. That's about a quarter of the distance to the farthest objects we can see and some 35,000 times larger than our Milky Way galaxy. How these structures move and change shape are some of the dynamics.
Cosmology involves the study of established phenomena including redshifts, galaxy surface brightness to distance ratios, diffuse microwave / millimeter radiation, supernova rise and decay curves, gamma ray burst spectrum stretching (dilation), galaxy rotation curves, Olbers paradox, and light element abundances.
As of today these are measured only by observing photons (e.g. light): the wavelengths, brightness, spectrum, emission and absorption lines and their widths, location and polarization and how these phenomena change over time.
There is very little astrophysics study of extragalactic electrons, protons or anything except photons. Magnetization of astrophysical phenomena is studied indirectly by detecting the photons / light from the phenomena.
It also includes the study of conjectures of force and matter that have never been directly observed: Dark matter, dark energy (and its accomplices Quintessence & Phantom energy), Higgs bosons, inflation & accelerating universe expansion, magnetic monopoles, curved space, cosmological constant (Lambda), Vacuum / Quantum Fluctuations, Virtual Particles, gravity waves, gravitons, strings, axions, tachyons, and "exotic matter."
This does not mean we cannot imagine, speculate or suggest new ideas, only that if we want an idea evaluated as scientific, it must be a complete claim by meeting the minimums required for a hypothesis.
We can accurately refer to ideas which do not meet these simple criteria as "models," conjectures, concepts or stories.
The various set of Big Bang models, often called the "Standard Model," does not yet meet the minimum threshold for a scientific claim or hypothesis.
Cosmological Constant (or "Lambda") Conjecture
(Never directly observed)
The conjectured universe wide, uniform repulsive force claimed to be pushing our galaxies apart. (dd: It would be easier to remember if it were called "Cosmological Pressure.")
But it allegedly does not act upon matter - only upon empty physical space, and it does not affect anything smaller than a cluster of galaxies. This means it can never be tested; it inherently defies observation. It also holds the record for missing its mark by the largest error in Physics -- an almost unimaginable 120 magnitudes. That difference makes Homeopathy's "mere" 30 magnitude problem seem small.
Cosmology Models
Big Bang Models
Plasma Models
Static Models
Steady State Model
Big Bang - A set of cosmology conjectures or models, collectively often called "The Standard Model." The models propose that all the matter and forces we now experience as our universe originated from a dot smaller than an electron some 14 billion years ago and expanded (not exploded) to what we now experience.
Big Bang, widely and vigorously disputed by a growing group of astrophysicists, is not yet a complete scientific claim because there is not yet a single agreed upon version, and the versions available are ambiguous and lack fully defined terms.
Plasma Models - Cosmology Models where plasma and electromagnetic effects dominate the largest scale universe dynamics rather than gravity. Electromagnetic forces are about 36 magnitudes stronger than gravity at the scale of a proton.
Critics claim that even though electromagnetic forces are 36 magnitudes stronger, gravity overwhelms it at cosmological distances.
For a very rough reference in distance (not force strength): an atom's diameter is 30 magnitudes smaller than the distance to Virgo's cluster of galaxies. That distance is one million times smaller than 36 magnitudes.
Static Models - Dynamically stable, non-expanding or stretching Universe models. Not the same as Steady-state models.
Critics claim calculations make a static universe impossible, yet supporters say that almost all cosmological phenomena can be easily explained using Static models.
Steady State (and Quasi-Steady-state) - Cosmology models claiming our Universe has relatively constant density, but is expanding (not static) and thus must have constant matter creation.
Steady State models were weakened by the finding that there are apparently more faint radio sources (and more recently quasars) at large distances than nearby. The rebuttal is that this is an redshift anomaly. They were also eclipsed and diminished by the work on "cosmic "background" microwave radiation."
The assumption that on the largest scales our Universe is the same (e.g. in galaxy density and energy) from every place; that it is homogeneous and isotropic.
The assumption that our Universe is the same from every place and time.
Critical Density
Big Bang's density threshold of space that divides a closed Universe from an open one. The critical density is about 5 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. The density of our universe is "estimated" (pulled out of a hat) at about 1 hydrogen atom per five cubic meters.
This concept has no meaning outside of Expanding Universe models.
(No direct evidence)
The conjecture that space has curvature, either positive (emerging from Einstein's General Relativity equations) or negative (emerging from nothing). Unstated is the implication that if space is curved, it must have an edge.
(No direct evidence)
Similar to how light bulbs emit light, Dark Energy is emitted by "Dark bulbs."
(While I'm just kidding, neither Dark Energy or Dark Bulbs are scientific hypotheses.)
Dark energy is the 1990's conjecture that some unobserved energy or force permeates our Universe and increases its rate of expansion. Its amount is an "unimaginably low" value estimated to be about 4 electron volts per cubic millimeter - and it allegedly provides about three-quarters of all energy in the universe.
Its leading explanations are Lambda, Quintessence, or that gravity has recently acquired a new unobserved property - that it now repels as well as attracts.
Decoupling Era, or Surface of Last Scattering
The conjectured time and place when all cosmic microwave "background" radiation was produced, some 300,000 years after Big Bang commencement.
DoubleSpeak
Using words to misleadingly hide or disguise unpleasant meaning, or meaninglessness.
The Four Kinds of Doublespeak (courtesy of Prof. William Lutz)
- Hiding Meaning - Words used to avoid harsh or distasteful reality. Examples: "involuntary conversion of a vehicle" meaning your car was stolen, "Biosolids" is used instead of "sewage sludge", "anomaly" was used by NASA to dress up the deadly Space Shuttle explosion.
- Hiding Meaninglessness - gobbledygook or academia-ese. Using many impressive sounding words in a sentence that doesn't mean anything. "Gravitational waves from kinks in infinite cosmic strings." (Neither Gravitational waves or cosmic strings or their kinks have ever been observed - they are all mere conjectures.)
- Jargon (or acronyms) made pretentious or obscure. Examples: "NASA doesn't need to do an EIS under NEPA," Hemoglobin is more viscous than H20 ("Blood is thicker than water.")
- Inflated Language -- making the unimportant seem important or the simple complex. For example - "Recycling Engineer" meaning Garbage Collector, or "negative patient care outcome" meaning a dead patient.
One side of physical space, as we view it from here, is "hotter" in the microwave radiation frequency than the other side. This is interpreted as meaning our solar system is moving towards the hotter side.
Distance
Astronomical Unit
Emission Distance
Light Year
Parsec
Astronomical Unit (AU) - the distance from the Earth to our Sun; about 150 million kilometers (or 150 gigameters) or 93 million miles.
Emission Distance: The distance from here to the source of light at the time it was emitted. Astronomical objects have almost certainly moved since the light was emitted so are likely a different distance from us today. It is nearly impossible to establish current distance to astronomical objects outside our galaxy since we have only been measuring distances that far for about one hundred years, a mere blink of time in cosmological terms.
Light Year: 361 days. (. . . just kidding)
The distance light travels in a vacuum in a Julian year; almost 1013 (1 with 13 zeros) kilometers (or 63,000 AU). The speed of light is about 300,000 kilometers per second (186,000 miles per second).
Parsec: A distance measure used in astronomy, but less used in cosmology in favor of the "light year" which is much easier to use on large scales. A parsec is about 3.26 light years. Its short for "the parallax of one arc second."
Megaparsec = one million parsecs, or 3.26 million light years.
Redshift Distance: Distance to cosmological objects as measured by Spectral line Redshift. See Distance Ladder for other methods of measuring distance.
The many overlapping methods used to measure distance to astronomical objects, primarily galaxies. These include Trigonometric Parallax and standard candles such as Apparent Brightness, Supernovae light curves, Spectral line Redshift.
While many of these other measures are used to verify Redshift distances, none can directly measure or verify the hypothesized Recession Velocity.
The wavelength change of sound or movement of spectral lines of light as the emitter either approaches or travels away from you.
Doppler effect is often used to simplify the explanation of cosmological redshift, and is a genuine effect seen with redshifts from the approaching side of a galaxy compared to the receding side. However, the well established Doppler effect is not the same phenomena as that claimed for the hypothesized recession velocity, which is then used to extrapolate the Universe expansion or stretching conjecture. To explain that a new concept called Relativistic Doppler Effect was created.
To support the universe-stretching conjecture, Big Bang supporters often entangle, or confuse, four concepts:
- the un-controversial well studied and established Doppler effect,
- the controversial Recession velocity which at least is a valid hypothesis,
- the obscure and untestable Relativistic Doppler Effect conjecture, and
- the disputed and unverifiable Universe Expansion conjecture.
The Universe Expansion conjecture does not use Doppler Effect, it employs and requires Relativistic Doppler Effect. This conjectured form of Doppler Effect was created by Big Bang advocates to explain why redshift increases with distance (why spectral lines shift). It is distinct from standard Doppler Effect by employing Special Relativity's Time Dilation and Light Aberration.
While standard Doppler Effect can be easily created and has been studied extensively, until we can test things that only occur on matter and scales larger than galaxy clusters there is no explanation for how to create or study this proposed phenomena in a laboratory.
Dynamics or Kinematics
Physical movement in natural phenomena caused by the ways matter and forces interact.
We try to describe changes in cosmological structure with mathematics, but because we do not know all of the dynamics or physics, mathematics can at best, only approximate how physical reality works.
The second strongest of the four fundamental forces. Thirty six (36) orders of magnitude stronger than gravity at the scale of protons. Just like gravity, electromagnetism affects things at infinite distances. Its strength decays more rapidly with distance than gravity. Gravity's strength weakens by the square of the distance, electromagnetism weakens by the cube of the distance.
ElectronVolt (eV)
A measure of energy and mass. Its amount is one volt times the mass of a single unbound electron. It is not a International Standard unit, its amount is determined experimentally (about 1.6 times 10 -19 Joules).
While I haven't verified the calculations for these two claims apparently --
- One electron volt has the kinetic energy of about 40 molecules of air at room temperature.
- The kinetic energy of the protons being smashed together at CERN's Large Hadon Collider is about 14 TeraElectronVolts - roughly the energy of 14 flying mosquitoes.
Error, Margins of
In every day life, most people are content to get measurements within a few percent. When something is off by 10 percent, that's generally considered significant or unacceptable.
Cosmology is a considerably less exact study or discipline. Most cosmology researchers are happy to get within the right magnitude (within ten fold). If the results are within a multiple of two from what was expected - its time for a champagne party. See Uncertainty.
The lowest speed where the kinetic energy of two objects exceeds the potential energy of the gravity and magnetic forces mutually binding them.
The minimum speed where one object (i.e. a spacecraft) without propulsion must have relative to another attracting object (typically a planet, star or galaxy) which allows the two to permanently sever their bindings from their mutual gravitational and magnetic attraction.
Escape velocity from Earth's gravitational attraction for a spacecraft at sea level at the equator is about 25,000 miles (40,320 kilometers) per hour.
Flat (non-curved) geometry having 3 dimensions typically depicted by an X axis, Y axis and a Z axis. Some cosmology models use other geometries; the Lemaitre Big Bang Model uses Spherical Geometry which is used to solve problems on two dimensional spherical surfaces such as our planet.
(No direct evidence and unverifiable)
Universe Expansion is not the same claim as the Recession Velocity hypothesis.
The conjecture that our universe (other than galaxies) is stretching or expanding based on the observation that Spectral line Redshift movements correlate with distance; that it has expanded (not exploded) for some 14 billion years into what we experience today from a ball smaller than an electron - but not of zero size called a singularity.
This Expansion conjecture requires support from several interdependent ideas including at least three conjectures --
- that there is a Spectral line Redshift-to-Distance correlation - which is observed although disputed (and it does have a large margin of error),
- the hypothesis that Redshift also means Recession velocity,
- the conjecture that Recession Velocity means our Universe (other than galaxies) is stretching called "Universe Expansion,"
- the conjecture that we can extrapolate the purported Universe Expansion backward in time 14 billion years to a moment when all the matter and energy in our Universe were packed together in a volume smaller than an electron.
- Universe Expansion is explained by, not the well known and studied Doppler Effect, but a conjectured and untestable Relativistic Doppler Effect.
Universe Expansion allegedly only operates on scales larger than galaxy clusters. It does not operate at human size scales.
Contention: While some want you to believe Universe expansion is undisputed ("We know that our Universe is expanding") in reality the conjecture is far from settled.
Universe Expansion is not a scientific hypothesis, it is merely a conjecture for many reasons but particularly because it does not carefully or clearly define space (its primary component) or the edge of its Universe (another key component). Expansion claims our Universe has a radius ("R" is used in equations), yet at the same time it has no edge.
Recession Velocity, by contrast, is a scientific hypothesis because it clearly and fully defines its terms and it is testable and falsifiable, even though it is not yet verifiable.
Big Bang, however, depends upon this non-scientific expansion conjecture. Failure of Expansion conjecture means Big Bang fails. But because Expansion is only an ambiguous conjecture (not a scientific claim) it inherently can not fail, just like a belief, an opinion or a religion, it is not possible to conclusively refute it logically or with physical evidence.
If the Expansion conjecture is ever clearly defined and testable, it could be a scientific hypothesis - that could then be scientifically challenged.
Notably, it is not widely appreciated that Edwin Hubble, who created the Recession Velocity hypothesis was not persuaded by the Universe Expansion conjecture. Hubble did interpret redshift distance correlations as galaxy recession velocity, but not as Universe Expansion.(2)
The unintentional biasing of a science experiment by the person conducting the research - generally the person collecting data. For example, a person who wants a certain outcome may find 52 coin tosses of 100 are in his favor while a video of the coin tosses shows only 51.
This effect is reduced with the use of a "Double Blind" study.
Argument tactics that are not based on relevant facts, reason or merit.
For example this glossary uses an "Appeal to Authority" in using the statement "String theory has no experimental support." - Roger Penrose. These are examples of Personality debate - as opposed to subject matter debate.
Other fallacies common to cosmology include Burden of Proof Reversal, Confirmation bias, GroupThink, Congruence bias, Doublespeak usage, Experimenter Effect, and invoking Priesthoods.
Filaments are sheets of galaxies forming the boundary between two or more voids. Filaments are the largest known structures in our universe and contain almost all the galaxies, but only half the known matter. The longest filament found is the "Sloan Great Wall" at about 1.4 Billion light years.
Formation, Galaxies and Structure - (Gravity vs. Electromagnetism)
Galaxies:
The study of how dust, gas and plasma organizes into galaxies.
Big Bang advocates claim galaxies formed from quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of Big Bang.
Other astrophysicists claim galaxies cluster from smaller particles of dust, gas and plasma, due to gravity and electromagnetic forces, since those forces exert effects at infinite distances.
Structure:
The study of how galaxies, dust, gas and plasma organizes into structures, from galaxy clusters to superclusters to filaments.
(Abundant direct evidence)
Physics has found only four fundamental forces:
Strong Force or Color Interaction: holds the nucleus of atoms together - only affects Quarks (not electrons), 38-39 magnitudes stronger than gravity at the scale of a proton, (38 magnitudes is astoundingly gigantic. See note below.) and is 137 times stronger than electromagnetic force. Strong force pushes as well as pulls, and oddly has a pull that increases with distance at certain ranges. Effect only reaches out to a radius of 10-14 millimeters.
Electromagnetic / Electrostatic: Acts on electrically charged matter, but at infinite range, 35-37 magnitudes stronger than gravity, has north and south poles (called dipole) and pushes as well as pulls.
Weak: (different from electroweak): affects Leptons (Electrons) and Hadrons (Protons and Neutrons), and is the only force significantly affecting neutrinos, 33-34 magnitudes stronger than gravity. Effect only reaches out to a radius of 10-16 millimeters.
Gravity: spectacularly weaker than the other 3 forces, acts on all known matter at infinite range and even evidently affects photons / light / radiation; monopole - unlike magnetism.
Note: a trillion is 12 magnitudes and a quadrillion is 15 magnitudes. A rough distance reference: an atom's diameter is 30 magnitudes smaller than the distance to Virgo's cluster of galaxies.
A notably luminous accumulation of matter and millions to billions of stars bound by gravity and electromagnetic forces. There are several types of galaxies: spiral, elliptical, and irregulars. The minimum mass to make up a galaxy appears to be around 10 million times the mass of our sun. One estimate, based on the Hubble Deep Field images, claims there are at least 50 billion galaxies that we can observe.
Our own galaxy, Milky Way, is estimated to contain some 250 billion to a trillion stars. It is about 100,000 light years across, and 12,000 light years thick at its widest point - the center.
Spiral galaxies rotate, but at different rates at different distances from the galaxy center. This is just like each planet in our solar system has a different length year - the time for each planet to complete one orbit around our sun. Rotation curves show how the galaxy spins at a different rate as you move from its center to the outside of its disk. Unexpected galaxy rotation curves initiated claims of dark matter.
Extremely high energy, point-source short-duration bursts of radiation with very high redshifts. They typically last only a few seconds, but can last almost as long as an hour. Soon afterwards less energetic radiation (x-rays, UV and visible light) shows up from the same locations.
Satellites detect about one burst per day. They are estimated to occur about one per galaxy every million years.
Source and Distance: Unlike most other astronomical radiation, Gamma Ray Bursts show up uniformly in every sky direction - they do not show up in a dense pattern towards the center of our own galaxy. None have low redshift values. These two things together mean that there are no close Gamma Ray Bursts. The closest recorded burst apparently occurred at about 1.6 billion light years from us, and the most distant more than 12.5 million light years.
One Gamma-ray burst (GRB 090423) was measured at a redshift of (z=) 8.2 making it presumably the oldest and most distant object (apparently some 13 billion light years).
There is no agreement on a good hypothesis for what causes them.
Spectacularly weaker than the other 3 fundamental forces, Gravity is 35-37 magnitudes weaker than electromagnetism at the atomic scale. It acts on all known matter at infinite range and even evidently affects photons / light / radiation. Its force is a monopole - unlike magnetism. Its strength decreases as the square of separation distance.
GroupThink (or Conflict Avoidance)
A phenomena where otherwise intelligent individuals when working in a group, take a position that is contradicted by, or not supported by, facts -- because minimizing or avoiding conflict is more important to them that making better, or even good, decisions.
This is related to "Informational Cascades," Jante law, and Herd Instinct or Bandwagon Effect.
(No evidence)
Higg's Bosons are hypothesized particles that allegedly create gravity. They have neither been detected nor created. They have markedly different properties from all known particles. They purportedly have no spin, act only on themselves (so how can they be detected?), and must have at least 80 times the mass of proton (114 Giga-electronVolts or Gev), but less than 170 Gev.
Homogenous
Meaning the universe has a uniform character (e.g. density, energy, structure, shape) in general at large enough scales. These are ambiguous terms; there are no Standard International units to measure homogeneousness. Many argue that the universe was initially homogeneous, others disagree.
Hubble Constant (or "H0")
The conjectured recession velocity is claimed to be directly proportional to distance as measured by redshift. This ratio is known as the Hubble Constant.
This is based on the Expansion rate conjecture for Big Bang. The value is arrived at by using the redshift of an object, usually a galaxy or a supernova, to estimate its distance (non controversial) and then recession velocity hypothesis (which is disputed and unverified).
The Hubble Constant value is estimated at about ((72 +/- 8 km/sec) / megaparsec) and as high as 90 and as low as 50.
Smaller Hubble Constant = slower recession velocity = Older Universe
This concept has no meaning outside of Big Bang / Expanding Universe models.
Hubble Distance
The threshold distance away from us where galaxies are purportedly receding from us at speeds greater than the speed of light; roughly where redshifts are larger than 1.5.
This conjecture that has no meaning outside Big Bang / Expansion claims.
The linear relationship between redshift and distance coupled with recession velocity. (Recession velocity = Hubble Constant times Distance)
This claim that has no meaning outside Big Bang / Expansion.
Hubble Time
The age of the universe according to Big Bang; roughly 13.7 billion years (plus or minus 10%). Hubble Time and the Hubble Constant ("H0") are reciprocals.
Intergalactic medium (vs. Intra-galactic or InterStellar)
Intra-galactic means within, or inside of, a galaxy.
The idea that our universe is generally the same in all directions in the sky; that there is no special density or phenomena in any particular direction.
An-isotropy means non-uniformity - the opposite.
Extremely powerful focused flows of plasma ejected from galactic centers OR Blazars at near light speeds, sometimes reaching hundreds of thousands of light years in length.
Jean's Instability
The simple idea that areas with large amounts of matter will attract and collect other matter due to gravity.
Law of Physics
A physics hypothesis or theory with an overwhelming set of direct evidence and no rational dispute based on confounding evidence. Gravity and electromagnetism are laws of physics. Laws of physics have more scientific value than theories and hypotheses.
(No evidence)
The hypothesis that magnetic solids having a single pole exist. Normal magnets have two poles, a North and a South Pole, called a dipole object. A monopole would only have a North pole or a South Pole - but not both.
None have ever been detected.
Magnetic force with no electric current flow; distinct from electro-magnetism.
Permanent magnets exhibit magnetism with no electric current flow.
Stars with the most powerful magnetic fields known. Suspected to be extremely dense Neutron stars.
Magnitude
Two meanings:
- The brightness of astronomical objects on a logarithmic scale, or
- A measurement difference of ten times - eg. 100 is one magnitude larger than 10. and One million (1,000,000) is five magnitudes (five zeros) larger than 10.
The inability to see fainter galaxies, or other astronomical phenomena, as we view things at the limits of our telescopes (e.g. at the edge of our visible universe) and only see the brighter versions. This causes the average luminosity to appear to increase with distance - which is the opposite of reality.
Its analogous to try to establish the average age of residents, but omitting the ages of the children.
A language or shorthand used to help understand quantities, abstractions, and scientific and logical relationships.
Cosmology Theorists often use Lorenz Transforms, Riemannian Geometry, Tensor Calculus, Eigen values and vectors, Hamiltonian mechanics, Lagrangian Density, and General Relativity.
However, do not confuse mathematics with physical reality; physical reality is independent of mathematics. Mathematical correctness, existence or precision is not proof that there is any corresponding physical reality. For example the square root of negative 7 acres has no physical reality; for that matter negative 7 acres (-7) has no physical reality either.
* Fully appreciating how some might consider this blasphemy ;-) it is this author's opinion -- that in the same way that you can successfully drive a car without needing to understand the math of vehicle dynamics, it is similarly not necessary to understand the many fields of higher mathematics to understand the dynamics or physics of cosmology.
While it can be helpful for some to understand the math, it is not required. Math is simply a language to help you understand the dynamics of natural physical phenomena.
Matter (confirmed)
Anti-matter
Baryons
Dark Matter
Electrons
Hadrons
Leptons
Neutrons
Protons
Quarks
Anti-matter is the same as ordinary matter (electrons, neutrons and protons, and all fundamental particles: quarks and leptons) in every way with one electric exception.
The only difference is anti-matter is composed of otherwise identical particles with a reversed electromagnetic charge. Those particles (e.g. anti-quarks and photons) are called anti-particles.
There is nothing fundamentally different about anti-matter (it has gravity, not anti-gravity, just the same as ordinary matter); it's just very rare on Earth's surface. We are familiar with ordinary matter, which is dramatically more common here on Earth. You may experience the rare anti-matter here on Earth when taking a medical PET scan where Positrons are used. Anti-matter is more common above our atmosphere in the Van Allen belts where it occurs naturally.
Anti-matter does not have negative mass, only particles with positive mass and (like a collect call) reversed charges.
While it is true that combining a particle and its anti-particle will explode, it is not true that an explosion results when mixing antipasto and pasta.
Baryons - Protons and Neutrons and other subatomic particles made up of 3 quarks governed by the Strong nuclear force.
Bosons - Photons, gluons and other Force carrier "particles."
Dark Matter: Matter which does not emit detectable radiation.
There are two kinds of dark matter:
1. Real physical matter - ordinary matter including gas, plasma and dust which is not luminous and interacts with gravity, light and other radiation, and
2. Conjectured never observed, highly speculative matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation - making it undetectable. This kind of dark matter is needed by Big Bang.
Electrons - a negatively charged particle usually found orbiting an atomic nucleus. Composed of 3 quarks; a Lepton.
Fermions - matter
Hadrons - are all particles made up of Quarks - Baryons and Mesons.
Leptons - Electrons, Neutrinos, Positrons, Muons, Tauons not subject to the strong force, but affected by gravity and electromagnetic forces.
Mesons - Unstable subatomic particles made up of 1 quark and 1 anti-quark. Interesting, but nearly useless.
Neutrons - a subatomic particle with no net electric charge made up of 1 up quark and two down quarks.
Neutrino: a subatomic particle with a large amount of energy, extremely little mass, but no net electric or strong force charge.
Protons - tons which have discarded their amateur status. (Pro-tons... sorry.) Composed of two up quarks and one down quark. Positive charge.
Quarks - are considered the most fundamental particles. Protons, neutrons and electrons are composed of quarks. Individual quarks have never been observed.
Tetraquarks - Hypothetical Meson composed of 4 valence quarks. Possibly found in 3 different type experiments.
WIMPS - Weakly Interacting Massive Particles. Never observed hypothetical particles intended to solve the missing dark matter problem, that are massive, yet do not interact with normal matter, and are not affected by electromagnetic or strong forces.
A cloud of intergalactic or interstellar gas. The Hubble space telescope has captured some spectacular (though typically color "adjusted") images of some nebulae.
The conjecture that all of the lightest four elements existing today, Hydrogen, Helium, Deuterium, and Lithium were created in the first few moments of Big Bang.
This claim is disputed with the hypothesis and mounting evidence that all light elements can be created / converted by normal stellar (star) processes, and that this idea depends upon the arbitrary initial conditions for a baryon to photon ratio of 6 to 1. BBN has no meaning outside Expanding Universe models.
Occam's (Ockham's) Razor (Law of Parsimony)
The philosophical guideline (not a scientific law, theory or hypothesis) that if every thing else is roughly equal, the simpler explanation is preferred.
The claim of a conflict between the apparent darkness of the night sky and the concept of a static, infinite universe. It is claimed to diminish static universe models because an infinite static universe should radiate light from every sky direction making night bright.
However, we now know that about half the known matter (dust, gas and plasma) is spread outside of galaxies. This makes Olber's proposal that most distant star and galaxy light is absorbed by that matter and re-radiated as non visible (e.g. infrared) radiation - reasonable.
Omega (space curvature criterion)
The mass density parameter, relative to the Hubble Constant. The mean matter density divided by the "critical value" of that density.
For those who believe space has an overall curvature (separate from general relativity's space-time curvature), if Omega equals 1 it means space is flat, if greater than 1 "the universe is closed" (like a sphere), and if less than 1 the universe is "open" (negatively curved like a saddle !?).
This concept has no meaning outside of Expanding Universe models.
Any movement of a galaxy or star or other object that is not attributed to universe expansion or stretching.
Personality Debate
A non-scientific argument about who asserts something rather than what is claimed, common with "priesthoods." A stunning and dismaying amount of Big Bang "debate," by those who should know better, is "who" based rather than "what" based. Similar to a Technology debate - which ignores principles to focus on the technology. See Logical Fallacies and Dilworth's Hyper-Certainty Principle.
Photons (Light and the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum -- from most powerful to least)
Gamma rays
X-rays
UltraViolet (UV)
Visible Light
InfraRed waves
Microwaves
Radio waves
Gamma rays: The most powerful radiation / photons: more energy than visible light, UV or x-rays. Damages DNA and can kill living cells. Most Gamma-rays are absorbed by oxygen in our atmosphere.
X-rays: More energy than light or UV. Damages DNA. Most X-rays are absorbed by oxygen in our atmosphere.
UltraViolet (UV): More energy than light. Damages DNA. Most UV is absorbed by ozone in our atmosphere, the remaining UV that gets through can cause skin cancer.
Visible Light: What we can see with our eyes. Most visible light gets through our atmosphere. Does not damage DNA.
InfraRed waves: Heat that we can feel. Each InfraRed photon has less energy than a light photon. Does not damage DNA (unless your body gets hot enough to catch fire).
Microwaves: Heat also, but less energy than InfraRed waves. Does not damage DNA. Most microwaves are absorbed by our atmosphere, though some microwaves get through. (Wavelengths are 1 millimeter to 1 meter)
Radio waves: The least energetic photons, less energy than light or heat. Does not damage DNA. Most radio waves get through our atmosphere. (Wavelengths are longer than 1 meter)
A phase of matter (as opposed to solid, liquid or gas). A highly electrically conductive, gas-like phase of matter that is partially ionized. Plasma is not the same state of matter as a gas. All stars are made of plasma, and even the space between stars is filled with plasma. About the only places in the universe lacking plasma is the thin surface layer of planets with an atmosphere - exactly where we live.
Although plasma is overwhelmingly the most common form of matter in our universe the general public and many scientists are barely familiar with it.
Cold: Plasmas can exist at almost any temperature. Plasmas can be as cold as superconducting temperatures (a few degrees above zero Kelvin), at room temperature or searingly hot: millions of degrees.
Thin: Plasmas can also be very thin. A gas with only 1% of its particles ionized can exhibit plasma characteristics. These two phenomena together (cold and thin) are conditions common in outer space.
The deliberate effort to make a subject (e.g. surfing, economics or cosmology) intimidating or complex as opposed to easy, approachable or understandable, implying the "insider" is superior to ordinary mortals. An easy way to recognize a Priesthood is the abundant use of unnecessary jargon or code words (including mathematics) for phenomena easily and more clearly explained with common words.
For example this glossary uses the marvelously obscure (but fun) "Furlongs per Fortnight" to spoof the silliness of the speed of the alleged "Cosmological Constant" which is given by astrophysicists in a similarly obscure, confusing (but gravely serious) unit of measure -- "kilometers per second per megaparsec."
(In response to the pretentious term "Precision Cosmology" I am tempted to ask "Compared to what? -- "Arm-waving cosmology?")
Quasars are the most energetic, point-sources of continuous radiation known. A single quasar can appear to emit as much energy as a thousand galaxies. They have very high redshifts, unusual spectra with a non thermal spectrum and no absorption lines.
Some 200,000 have been found, most by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.
They are hypothesized as compact regions surrounding the center of massive galaxies, very similar to Active Galaxy Nuclei.
Distance: Unlike most other astronomical radiation, Quasars, like Gamma Ray Bursts, show up uniformly in every sky direction - they do not show up in a dense pattern towards the center of our own galaxy. None have exhibited low redshift values. These two things together indicate there are no close Quasars. The nearest Quasar is no closer than 600 million light years from us -some 6,000 times our galaxy's diameter; the most distant - 28 billion light years.
Energetic: Because there are apparently no close Quasars, they appear highly energetic, apparently the most luminous phenomena in the universe.
Because they appear to exist only at great distances, they are conjectured to have only occurred long ago, at times closer to the conjectured Big Bang.
There is some concern that Quasar redshifts may be much higher than the typical redshift-distance correlation requires, meaning they could be closer than currently determined.
While Gamma Ray Bursts typically last only a few seconds, Quasars radiate continuously, while fluctuating over a period of days to months, making them candidates for measuring distances as standard candles.
(Recession Velocity is not the same claim as Universe Expansion.)
A three-part hypothesis that --
- distant galaxies are receding away from us,
- at a velocity proportional to redshift values,
- assuming redshift values only mean velocity.
Its value is estimated at about (( 72 km/sec) / megaparsec) (+/- 10 percent) (or 22 millimeters per second per light year) and as high as 90 km/sec/mp and as low as 50 km/sec/mp.
This asserts that each Megaparsec (~3.3 million light years) of "space" expands / stretches at a rate of ~72 kilometers per second; or in other units -- each light-year of "space" expands / stretches at a rate of ~22 millimeters per second (or ~ 132 furlongs per fortnight - which is about 50% faster than a racing snail).
Recession Velocity is not the same as Universe Expansion. Universe expansion conjecture is a separate claim that is extrapolated from Recession Velocity.
"Slower" recession velocity = smaller Hubble Constant = Older Universe (under Big Bang)
ReCombination
The conjectured event that released CMBR; about 300,000 years after Big Bang.
This concept has no meaning outside of Expanding Universe models.
ReIonization
The conjectured event that dramatically re-heated CMBR so it would not be too cold to reach its current temperature of 2.7 deg. Kelvin; about 100 million years after Big Bang.
This concept has no meaning outside of Expanding Universe models.
Redshift occurs when spectral lines of light or other electromagnetic radiation show up in longer wavelengths than normal, apparently resulting in energy loss.
Blueshift is the reverse - when spectral lines move towards shorter wavelengths apparently meaning an increase in radiation energy. Blueshift has been observed in radiation emitted by stars and galaxies moving towards us.
Spectral line Redshift is the most important evidence supporting Big Bang.
Measurements: Redshift is usually measured by examining a spectrogram of a star or galaxy showing neutral (atomic) Hydrogen's 21.1 centimeter wavelength emission line which normally appears at 1427 megacycles or megahertz in a lab here on Earth. The redshift value is given by how far the emission line has moved from 1427 megahertz.
Notably, this wavelength is not in, or even near, the visible light range, it is right at the boundary between radio waves and microwaves at about 1 meter wavelength. Visible light redshift is available using Fraunhofer lines but that is rarely used today, even though the first astronomical redshift was found using this method.
While less reliable, redshifts less than 1.0 are also measured more quickly with photographs of the 4000 Å (angstrom) break in context with the overall radiation spectrum shape.
The largest confirmed spectroscopic galaxy redshift is 6.7, one Gamma-ray burst was measured at a redshift of z=8.2.
In some cases Spectral line Redshift from the same astronomical sources has been found consistent within 1% in the x-ray, light and radio bands by using different spectrogram emission line radiation spikes. On the other hand dramatically different "redshifts" were found coming from Galaxy "236 D6" in visible and infrared bands. One was redshifted by 300 kilometers per second, the other was Blueshifted by 300 kilometers per second.
Redshift can occur when radiation is emitted by stars moving away from us, in the presence of stellar gravity, or after light has traveled for millions or billions of years through physical space (whew, I'd be a bit tired.)
The equation for redshift is ((observed wavelength - (minus) standard wavelength) divided by standard wavelength).
Meaning: That redshift occurs is not controversial. The controversy arises in the interpretation of which phenomena cause redshift.
Spectral line Redshift generally correlates well with distance, though it can have a large margin of error or uncertainty, and has hundreds of unexplained non-trivial anomalies.
There is a dispute with Hubble's hypothesis that Redshift means galaxies are receding. Some favor evidence showing there is an Intrinsic Redshift caused when photons traverse the intergalactic plasma, gas and dust over millions and billions of light years.
The broadest debate arises with the leap from redshift meaning galaxies are receding -- to spectral line redshift meaning our Universe is expanding. Hubble himself did not agree with the Universe Expansion conjecture. (3) He argued that if a photon wave stretches, the distance between each photon must stretch by the same amount - canceling out any redshift.
Big Bang advocates claim redshift means, and only means, our universe is expanding or stretching (but only on scales larger than galaxy clusters).
Big Bang skeptics claim that there are several other simpler reasons called "non-velocity redshifts" to explain Redshift's loss of energy after traveling millions or billions of light years. There are hundreds of anomalies conflicting with the standard Redshift interpretation; several phenomena are known to cause redshift, and there are dozens of hypotheses and conjectures on redshift causes.(4) The leading alternative explanation for spectral line redshift is "Tired Light."
For reference a single blue photon (at 400 nm wavelength) has a mass-energy of about 3.1 electron volts.
Several sets of co-orbiting stars called Binary stars, each of which inherently maintain equal mean distances from us, show consistently different redshifts (e.g. Binary HD193567 and several Wolf-Rayet Binaries).
This redshift clearly a different redshift phenomena from the universe stretching or expanding conjecture. Incidentally, most stars come in binary pairs.
The hypothesis with experimental evidence that light loses energy by increasing in wavelength when leaving a strong gravitational field. Oddly, there is apparently no evidence of gravitational redshift from our own sun.
Our Sun's equator and poles (limbs) show consistently different spectral line redshifts even though they are not moving away from us over the course of a year (they inherently maintain equal mean velocities away from us - essentially zero kph or mph). This redshift is not a reddening due to atmospheric absorption.
This redshift is clearly a different phenomena from the universe stretching or expanding conjecture. Skeptics claim this could be explained by the Compton effect.
Redshift, K-effect
In our own Milky way galaxy --
- Bright blue stars are redshifted by about 10 km per second compared to other stars.
- O-stars are redshifted by about 10 km per second compared to B-stars, and
Red giants in neighboring galaxies are redshifted by about 10 km per second compared to other stars.
These three phenomena are collectively called K-effect redshift. There is no generally accepted hypothesis for this evidence.
Redshift, Companion or Child Galaxy
All of Andromeda's smaller child galaxies have higher redshifts than it does as the "parent" galaxy. All eleven of M81's companion galaxies of galaxy have higher redshifts than it does as the "parent" galaxy. Statistically, 50 percent should have blue shifts if they are orbiting the parent, yet none do.
The generalization of Galileo's relativity principle that there is no absolute condition of rest, and that all uniform motion is relative. It does not incorporate gravity, or relative speeds approaching the speed of light and only applies to local objects moving relative to each other.
It includes the idea that the speed of light is the same for all observers - no matter how they are moving. It asserts that no particle with mass can reach the speed of light relative to another particle. The equation E=mc2 is derived from, but is not dependent upon, Special Relativity.
Special Relativity was intended to solve the problem (lack of evidence for aether) raised by the 1880s Michelson-Morley experiments that found light going almost exactly the same speed independent of the direction light speed was measured. (Remarkably, even the most recent versions of these experiments have not found zero difference in the speed of light going with Earth's rotation and against it.)
Critics point out that laws of physics must apply universally not just locally; and that two particles approaching each other each at speeds of 99 percent of the speed of light (a standard experiment at particle colliders, and adding up to almost twice the speed of light) violate Special Relativity.
The addition of gravity to Special Relativity so it can apply to any two objects - no matter how far apart. It is also considered a framework for understanding the behavior of space-time. Its equations predict gravitational lensing, gravitational redshift, gravitational waves and perihelion precession.
General Relativity does not require conservation of energy and mass.
Science is a way of understanding fascinating natural phenomena so that it can be predicted at other times and places. It has two parts: A way of testing hypotheses (scientific method), and the body of facts that result from those tests.
Weakest link: No idea can have more scientific value than the weakest link in its rationale. For example -- if an idea depends on four other ideas where three of them are valid hypotheses or even theories, but one is an incomplete conjecture - the idea can not be a scientific claim. The conjecture is the weakest link making the valid hypotheses irrelevant.
Imagined phenomena or technology without physical evidence, some contradicting fundamental laws of physics, used in novels imbued with technology and space travel. Sometimes found sneaking into mainstream science publications.
Wholly rejected cosmology ideas:
Aether (well-entrenched physical law until the early 1900s), phlogiston, Ptolemaic motion (complex earth centered universe idea that lasted 1,000 years).
Current cosmology ideas contradicting fundamental Physics:
Negative Energy, Anti-(or negative)-Mass, multiverses.
Mythological cosmological phenomena as of Jan. 2010 (absolutely un-observed, no direct evidence):
Dark matter, dark energy (and its accomplices Quintessence & Phantom energy), cosmological constant (Lambda), inflation, accelerating universe expansion, magnetic monopoles, curved space, gravity waves, gravitons, strings, axions, "exotic matter," tachyons, worm holes.
Disputed cosmology and Big Bang interpretations as of March 2010:
Spectral-line Redshift-to-Distance correlation, Spectral line Redshift meaning Universe expansion / stretching, Tired Light, CMR as background, galaxy rotation needing dark matter, accelerating universe expansion, nucleosynthesis, Olber's Paradox, supernova rise and fall curves. (Essentially every important topic.)
Undisputed cosmology phenomena as of Jan. 2010 (with direct evidence):
Filaments, walls, voids, and bubbles.
Two very distinct ideas (physical vs. Abstract) that can mean the same place --
1. A physical volume outside earth's atmosphere always containing photons and perhaps a few atoms of matter.
2. The abstract concept of volume typically used to geometrically define physical locations and characteristics in three physical dimensions typically Euclidean space. It is used with many coordinate systems, most commonly Cartesian which uses x. y and z.
Big Bang is wholly vague and ambiguous about which of these two definitions it uses for expansion: physical space or abstract space? It makes a difference whether you are referring to a physical volume expanding - or the coordinate system itself.
The abstract concept of volume described by three physical dimensions. It helps us to understand positions, distances and angles typically by using the Cartesian coordinate system x, y, and z. Together they provide us with coordinate space.
A term for a set of mathematics models which combine time with the three dimensions of volume to simplify some physics models.
Typically, science experiments separate phenomena to examine them individually. Space-Time and Grand Unification ideas do the opposite.
Punctuations In The Relatively Smoother Spectrum Of An Astronomical Light Source. Astronomical Bodies Such As Stars And Galaxies Provide An Apparently Smooth Spectrum Of Radiation.
Spectral Lines Are Sharp Increases (Emission Spikes) Or Decreases (Absorption Canyons) In Luminous Power. Spectral Lines Are Usually Unique To A Specific Atom Allowing These Spikes Of Emission And Absorption Lines To Be Used To Discern Which Elements Exist In Distant Astrophysical Phenomena.
Radiation Spectrums Really Are Not Smooth And "Clean" Because Every Part Of The Spectrum Is Made By A Specific Atom Releasing A Photon.
Absorption lines are caused by the photons going through gas clouds. If a photon has gone through many neutral Hydrogen gas clouds it has a whole set of absorption lines called a "Lyman Alpha Forest."
Astronomical objects / phenomena used to measure the largest distances. Cepheid Variable stars, 1a Supernovas, and even Gamma ray-bursts have been used as standard candles. Phenomena are only used when they can be shown to have reliable characteristics - independent of distance and age.
A concentration of galaxies; large groups of smaller galaxy groups. The Shapley Supercluster is the largest one we recognize situated about 600-650 million light years from us.
Faster than the speed of light. Several astrophysical phenomena, including Jets from Blazars, appear to be exceeding light speed, some almost ten times the speed of light.
Supernova Rise and Decay Curves
(Supernova is abbreviated as "SN")
Supernovas are star explosions which are among the brightest things in the universe. There are three types of Supernovae. Type 1a are used for measuring sticks or "Standard Candles." The graph of visible light increase and decrease over the few weeks as a Supernova 1a explodes are curves used to estimate distances at the farthest visible reaches of our Universe. Comparing "close" and distant supernova curves gives us some (wildly conflicting) interpretations of cosmology.
The idea that Spectral line Redshift is caused by light / radiation losing energy (wavelengths grow) after traveling for millions to billions of years through space. (Well, I'd be a bit tired.) There is a lot of evidence of Spectral line Redshift caused by phenomena other than recession velocity or Universe expansion including: Solar center to limb redshift and Binary stars with differing redshifts.
This is the leading concept undermining galaxy recession, Universe expansion and Big Bang.
Tired light critics claim that -- Radiation / Light --
- can not lose energy without scattering, and
- causing spectral line widening or broadening, and
- making radio waves decay faster than visible light -
none of which is observed.
- Supernova lifespan appears to increase with distance indicating space must be stretching.
Tired light supporters respond that light is well known to transit a transparent medium, slowed by the refractive index - without scattering or spectral line broadening.
There is nothing inherently wrong with uncertainty. Almost all scientific research has some unknown information. What is harmful is not acknowledging uncertainty or failing to reveal it, estimate it or explain its meaning.
"A measurement result is complete only when accompanied by a quantitative statement of its uncertainty. The uncertainty is required in order to decide if the result is adequate for its intended purpose and to ascertain if it is consistent with other similar results." -National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
There are at least Three Types of Uncertainty (5)
- "Phenomena Variability (or Process) Uncertainty" arises from natural variability of the phenomena. e.g. planets do not keep the same orbits.
- "Measurement or Observational Uncertainty" arises from measurement and sampling errors. For example when you repeatedly measure a building height and compare the data you may get different results. (Phenomena Variability and Measurement Uncertainty are compound errors so must be multiplied to establish their total uncertainty.)
- "Model Uncertainty" reflects incomplete knowledge. For example ecological processes are so complicated, have so many variables, that no one understands them fully and some are simply left out. This means the parameters for computer models are estimated from observed data leaving "estimation uncertainty."
The hypothesis that there is a limit to knowledge or information about a particle's location or speed. Its actually an inverse relationship - the more precisely you can measure one (location or speed) - the less precisely you can know the other.
The Uncertainty Principle is not about a change in a physical entity such as energy or matter. For example Quantum or Vacuum Fluctuations concern changes in a physical entity - not limits to information.
(This is only coincidentally related to Dilworth's Hyper-Certainty Principle.)
Vacuum / Quantum Fluctuations, Virtual Particles
(No direct evidence)
The conjecture that matter pops into and out of existence (in an untestably short amount of time - less than 10 to the minus 43rd of a second) without anything converted from or to energy. This violates the fundamental law of physics of energy and mass conservation ("but only for short times").
Some interpret Casimir Effect and Lamb Shift as support for this conjecture.
Both Big Bang and Steady-State models claim this effect, Static Universe models do not.
Verification and Falsifiability
Verification means a hypothesis can repeatedly pass a test - under explicit conditions. Verification is not the same as falsifiability. Falsifiability means a claim can fail a test.
Verification is one of the fundamental parts of modern science. Until it is tested and verified, a hypothesis is highly suspect. The origin and reason for a hypothesis is irrelevant or meaningless, the only thing that gives it real value is independent verification.
The next step is Falsifiability. Can the claim be shown to fail a test?
Voids or Bubbles (and Supervoids)
Large volumes of physical space with very few or no luminous galaxies. Voids do contain a significant percent of the universe's gas and dust The largest known void is about 3.5 billion light years across.
Walls
Walls are Filaments (the largest structures) which are significantly (that's ambiguous) larger along their largest axis than their second largest axis. The largest reported is the "Sloan Great Wall" at about 1.4 Billion light years long.
Notes and References:
(1) "Humor" inspired by Tony Darnell atDeep Astronomy.com
(2) Principles of Physical Cosmology, Peebles, P., Princeton, 1993
(3) "Hubble's Cosmology: From a Finite Expanding Universe to a Static Endless Universe", A. Assis et all, Astronomical Society of Pacific, 2009
(4) "Untrivial Redshifts: A Bibliographical Catalogue [of more than 700 unexplained redshift phenomena and events]", H. J. Reboul, Astronomy and Astrophysics Suppl., Vol. 45, pp. 129-144, 1981
(5) Derived from a paper by John Williams of Davis California
This website and its contents are © Copyright 2008-2010 David j Dilworth.
All rights are reserved worldwide (and throughout our Milky Way Galaxy).
David Dilworth is one of only a handful of lifetime members of the organization Committee for Scientific Inquiry (formerly known as CSICOP).
David occasionally provides science repair services as a Quantum Mechanic.
His 2009 paper "Ground Rules for Cosmological Physics" was published by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in the 2008 Cosmology Conference "CCC2" Proceedings.
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